aristotle views on political science

If you wanted to describe a knife, you would talk about its size, and its shape, and what it is made out of, among other things. An error occurred trying to load this video. Government, Aristotle says, must be in the hands of one, of a few, or of the many; and governments may govern for the general good or for the good of the rulers. aristotle's conception of a new and more general type of political science, including not only a study of the ethical meaning of the state but also an empirical study of the elements, both political and social, of actual constitutions, their combination, and the consequences which are found to follow from these combinations, represented in no Remember that in his discussion of the household, Aristotle has said that slavery serves the interest of both the master and the slave. Robinson is sympathetic to Aristotle but also to his readers, keeping things easy to read while at the same time offering enough detail about Aristotles doctrines to illuminate his entire system and making the interconnections among the various elements of Aristotles system clear. In Book Six of theEthics Aristotle says that all knowledge can be classified into three categories: theoretical knowledge, practical knowledge, and productive knowledge. In the feelings of a good man towards himself, Aristotle finds the highest type of friendship. Further, the final cause is an end, and that sort of end which is not for the sake of something else, but for whose sake everything else is; so that if there is to be a last term of this sort, the process will not be infinite; but if there is no such term, there will be no final cause, but those who maintain the infinite series eliminate the Good without knowing it (yet no one would try to do anything if he were not going to come to a limit); nor would there be reason in the world; the reasonable man, at least, always acts for a purpose, and this is a limit; for the end is a limit. Aristotle, The Works of Aristotle, W. D. Ross, trans., Metaphysica, Vol. Ruling in accordance with ones wishes at any particular time is one of the hallmarks of tyranny (it is the same way masters rule over slaves), and it is also, Aristotle says, typical of a certain kind of democracy, which rules by decree rather than according to settled laws. These will not always be the cheapest or most widely available translations, but it is important to get one of them, from a library if need be. Delba Winthrop punctures this complacency and takes up the challenge of justifying democracy through Aristotle's political science. To make such a judgement on a quality like justice is to attach an intrinsic value to that quality and so political life is to participate for an inherent value rather than a means/ends relationship. Aquinas's political and legal theory is important for three reasons. This does not mean that the people living in a democracy should be educated to believe that oligarchs are enemies of the regime, to be oppressed as much as possible and treated unjustly, nor does it mean that the wealthy under an oligarchy should be educated to believe that the poor are to be treated with arrogance and contempt. Political theorist Jill Frank suggests that he was well aware of this . However, it is also important to read Nicomachean Ethics in order to fully understand Aristotles political project. This is evident from the result: none of these sorts of regimes is lasting (1302a3). The second is perhaps a little more unexpected: do those in power, however many they are, rule only in their own interest or do they rule in the interest of all the citizens? What concerns us is thetelos of a human being. Many animate things (i.e. So whatever regime is in power should, to the extent possible, allow the laws to rule. One who asks the law to rule, therefore, is held to be asking god and intellect alone to rule, while one who asks man adds the beast. 1). Aristotle says of democracies that [D]emocracies undergo revolution particularly on account of the wanton behavior of the popular leaders (1304b20). The requisite virtue of statesmen according to this model is practical wisdom (phronesis), sometimes translated as prudence.18 How is phronesis related to politics? Those that live the lives of leisure that are open to citizens because of the labor performed by the non-citizens (again, including the women) are all similar to one another, and therefore the appropriate political arrangement for them is in similar fashion to participate in ruling and being ruled in turn. Instead, whichever group, rich or poor, is able to achieve power conducts affairs to suit itself rather than considering the interests of the other group: whichever of the two succeeds in dominating its opponents does not establish a regime that is common or equal, but they grasp for preeminence in the regime as the prize of victory (1296a29). Aristotle's political theory is prominently featured in his work, Politics. He concludes on this basis that the human being is a mere part of the city just as a hand is a part of a body, implying that everything about the individual his or her function, duties, and happiness is determined by the city, which is to say by its laws and rulers. More will be said about this later, but the reader should keep in mind that this is an important way in which our political and ethical beliefs are not Aristotles. Human action at its highest level is the immortalizing act of human contemplation (theoretike) of the divine nous.7 With this as his standard, Aristotle saw that the rationality of human action on even the lowest level logically depends upon an ultimate end. Aristotle was born in Stagira, which is now either in Greece or Macedonia. We have already seen the claims of the few rich and the many poor to rule. Some of this discussion has to do with the various ways in which the offices, laws, and duties can be arranged. Good government, then, requires understanding of what makes a good human. Aristotle (385-322 B.C.) And in discovering and living according to the right laws, acting with justice and exercising the virtues that allow human society to function, we make possible not only the success of the political community but also the flourishing of our own individual virtue and happiness. (Obviously they are not completely helpless or unable to reason; in the case of slaves captured in war, for example, the slaves were able to sustain their lives into adulthood and organize themselves into military forces. As Aristotle says atEthics1103a30: We become just by the practice of just actions, self-controlled by exercising self-control, and courageous by performing acts of courage.Lawgivers make the citizens good by inculcating [good] habits in them, and this is the aim of every lawgiver; if he does not succeed in doing that, his legislation is a failure. His other major political works include the Discourses on Livy, a much longer study of Roman republicanism, the Florentine Histories, an examination of his own city's troubled republican past, and Art of War, a dialogue that features contemporary personages, including the mercenary captain Fabrizio Colonna. If, for example, two students turn in essays of identical quality, they should each get the same grade. Nevertheless, it is not sufficient merely to live. The difference between this city and other cities is that the principles that it teaches its citizens are the correct principles for living the good life. For example, generosity is one of the virtues listed in theEthics, but it is impossible to be generous unless one has possessions to give away. His cataloguing of constitutions is still used in understanding constitutions relatively. This article will not attempt to organize all of Aristotles work into a coherent whole, but will draw on different texts as they are necessary to complete one version of Aristotles view of politics. For more detail consult the works listed in the Suggestions for further reading below. Aristotle was the first person to create and widely disseminate a system of logical thought. Create your account. On the other hand, the city and its territory should be such as to afford its inhabitants advantages in times of war; it ought to be difficult for enemies to enter, but readily exited by [the citizens] themselves, and not so big that it cannot be readily surveyable because only such a territory is readily defended (1326b41). Ethics and politics, which are the practical sciences, deal with human beings as moral agents. You should also keep in mind that by the common good Aristotle means the common good of the citizens, and not necessarily all the residents of the city. Corrupted governments, by contrast, seek to dominate the ruled. View this sample Memo/Letter. Aristotle's Politics is a key document in Western political thought. The ideal regime to be described in Book VII is the regime that we would pray for if the gods would grant us our wishes and we could create a city from scratch, having everything exactly the way we would want it. Doing so would require far more governmental control over citizens than most people in Western societies are willing to allow. The Greeks believed that women are inferior to men (or at least those Greeks who wrote philosophy, plays, speeches, and so forth did. I feel like its a lifeline. What would be the characteristics of the best city we could imagine? Edited and Translated by Robert C. Bartlett and Susan D. Collins. The person who has it neither flees from the enemy nor engages in a suicidal and pointless attack but faces the enemy bravely and attacks in the right way. (Contemporary social scientists call this a problem of collective goods). Using the democratic view of political leadership, Aristotle looked at the political system as an organ, as opposed to a system, or machine. There are two pairs of people for whom this is the case. Aristotle asks, What is the commencement of movement in the soul? Nature, physis, was theophanous, evoking in the Greek philosophers an experience of the divine reality which is its origin. Yet despite the importance of reason or speech in Aristotles political teaching, he did not advance any theory or argument for freedom of speech. And yet the one who first constituted [a city] is responsible for the greatest of goods [1253a29]. However, Aristotle thought different people had different degrees of rational powers. He obeys his nous, which Aristotle says, always chooses what is best.14 Aristotle calls the good man spoudaios, sometimes translated as virtuous or mature. The relationship of the spoudaios with himself is the standard by which to judge friendship.15 We recall that Aristotle considered the nous to be the most divine part of man, or divine itself, and it is the act of nous which shapes the lover of himself into the good man. Thus the individual needs the city more than the city needs any of its individual citizens; as Aristotle says in Book 8 before beginning his discussion of the desirable education for the citys children, one ought not even consider that a citizen belongs to himself, but rather that all belong to the city; for each individual is a part of the city (1337a26). This may be so, but it is important to understand why, and the contrast between Aristotles beliefs and ours can help to bring the strengths and weaknesses of our own beliefs into greater clarity. Aristotle first turns to those who believe that slavery is conventional. For this reason, poetry is more philosophical and more important than history, for poetry speaks of the universal, history of only the particular. Far from debasing the emotions, as Plato thought, drama has a beneficial effect on them. However, keep in mind that Aristotle believes that human life has a telos and that the political community should provide education and laws that will lead to people pursuing and achieving this telos. As long as this is unclear, the best regime must necessarily be unclear as well (1323a14). Third, Aristotle distinguishes between practical and theoretical knowledge in terms of the level of precision that can be attained when studying them. Even here at the very beginning of thePolitics Aristotle is showing the link between ethics and politics and the importance of a well-constructed city in making it possible for the citizens to live well. from the University of Pittsburgh and a Ph.D. in Government and International Studies from the University of Notre Dame under the direction of Gerhart Niemeyer. He who is without a city through nature rather than chance is either a mean sort or superior to man, Aristotle says (1253a3), and adds One who is incapable of participating or who is in need of nothing through being self-sufficient is no part of a city, and so is either a beast or a god (1253a27). An unjust political regime will inevitably have recourse to greater and greater injustices, if it is to survive. For instance, while Aristotle argues that the city is authoritative over all the particular sciences, he also insists that this authority itself admits of a science a supreme, or architectonic science. Second, it combines traditional hierarchical and feudal views of . We have already seen that women and slaves are not capable of living this kind of life, although each of these groups has its own kind of virtue to pursue. One cannot, of course, dismiss concern for justice. Here Aristotle is not discussing the kind of monarchies with which most people today are familiar, involving hereditary descent of royal power, usually from father to son. A very thorough introduction and commentary are included with this translation of the. It would weaken attachments to other people and to the common property of the city, and this would lead to each individual assuming that someone else would care for the children and property, with the end result being that no one would. Unlike Plato, who described an imaginary ideal State, Aristotle introduced empirical observation into the study of politics (Roskin, accessed 18/3/2022). Human beings alone have the ability to speak, and Aristotle says that we have been given that ability by nature so that we can speak and reason with each other to discover what is right and wrong, what is good and bad, and what is just and unjust. This examination of existing cities must be done both in order to find out what those cities do properly, so that their successes can be imitated, and to find out what they do improperly so that we can learn from their mistakes. Plato thought that the state must pursue virtue and morality. As a member, you'll also get unlimited access to over 84,000 And just as a hand is not able to survive without being attached to a functioning body, so too an individual cannot survive without being attached to a city. As the science of human action, political science enables man to fulfill this aspiration. (I will use man and men when referring to citizens so that the reader keeps in mind that Aristotle, and the Greeks generally, excluded women from political part icipation. It should also be in the right geographical location. Aristotle also provides advice for those that want to preserve any of the existing kinds of regime, even the defective ones, showing a kind of hard-headed realism that is often overlooked in his writings. In Greece in Aristotles time the important political entities were cities, which controlled surrounding territories that were farmed. From the very first partnerships of male and female and master and slave, nature has been aiming at the creation of cities, because cities are necessary for human beings to express their capacities and virtues at their best, thus fulfilling their potential and moving towards such perfection as is possible for human beings. He elaborates on the content of this education, noting that it should involve the body as well as the mind. Their intellectual powers, which could be turned to wealth, are being used in other, better ways to develop their humanity. Thus, in promoting the authority of the city, Aristotle makes the city dependent on natural science, which it had hitherto regarded as a nuisance at best and at worst a grave danger. Aristotle Political Ideals. Those who are slaves by nature do not have the full ability to reason. He begins by examining opinions which are generally accepted, which means, as he says in theTopics at 100b21, are accepted by everyone or by the majority or by the philosophers i.e. Cicero Philosophy & Biography | Who was Cicero? Aristotle furthermore suggests that although not everyone necessarily need to possess such a science, it is always betterto understand things for oneself than to take ones bearings from authority alone. No, it is one of those pieces of scholarships that challenge future generations of scholars to follow in her footsteps and do to other thinkers and Ethics is a system of morality; and for Aristotle, that meant performing the human telos (purpose) well. Aristotle, Metaphysica, 994b816. Many people, Aristotle says, are confused about what this means. And the source and cause of all good things we consider as something worthy of honor and as divine. N.E., 1102a25. And, since members of this class are similar and equal in wealth, they are likely to regard one another as similar and equal generally, and to be willing to rule and be ruled in turn, neither demanding to rule at all times as the wealthy do or trying to avoid ruling as the poor do from their lack of resources. Krandall 7 - Mechanics of Solid H.Crandall Solution chapter 7. The proper education must be instilled from the earliest stages of life, and even before; Aristotle tells us the ages that are appropriate for marriage (37 for men, 18 for women) in order to bring about children of the finest quality, and insists on the importance of a healthful regimen for pregnant women, specifying that they take sufficient food and remain physically active. GACE Political Science (532): Practice & Study Guide, {{courseNav.course.mDynamicIntFields.lessonCount}}, Thomas Hobbes & John Locke: Political Theories & Competing Views, Psychological Research & Experimental Design, All Teacher Certification Test Prep Courses. (In Book II, Chapter 9, Aristotle severely criticizes the Spartan regime for its failure to properly educate the Spartan women and shows the negative consequences this has had for the Spartan regime). Political science studies the tasks of the politician or statesman (politikos), in much the way that medical science concerns the work of the physician (see Politics IV.1). This entry will make use of the Bekker pagination system, and will also follow tradition and refer to Nicomachean Ethics as simply Ethics. Aristotle says that It is clear that all partnerships aim at some good, and that the partnership that is most authoritative of all and embraces all the others does so particularly, and aims at the most authoritative good of all. But a democracy in which the interests of the wealthy were taken into account and protected by the laws would be ruling in the interest of the community as a whole, and it is this that Aristotle believes is the best practical regime. For the polity (or any other regime) to last, the part of the city that wants the regime to continue must be superior to the part not wanting this in quality and quantity (1296b16). He agrees with those who think that slavery cannot be justified by war or conquest. Most of Book VI is concerned with the varieties of democracy, although Aristotle also revisits the varieties of oligarchy. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1990. Although not himself an aristocrat, Aristotle had an aristocratic disdain for commerce. Aristotle thought each community could be classified with one of his forms of government. Print - PDF Aristotle: Democracy and Political Science. Aristocracy, in theory, is the next-best constitution after monarchy (because the ruling minority will be the best-qualified to rule), but in practice Aristotle preferred a kind of constitutional democracy, for what he called polity is a state in which rich and poor respect each others rights and the best-qualified citizens rule with the consent of all. In addition to combining elements from the institutions of democracy and oligarchy, the person wishing to create a lasting polity must pay attention to the economic situation in the city. 1991. It is only the character of the farming population that makes the arrangements Aristotle describes possible: The other sorts of multitude out of which the remaining sorts of democracy are constituted are almost all much meaner than these: their way of life is a mean one, with no task involving virtue among the things that occupy the multitude of human beings who are vulgar persons and merchants or the multitude of laborers (1319a24). Aristotle was an ancient Greek philosopher who lived much of his life in Athens. They are like a knife that will not cut, an oak tree that is diseased and stunted, or a racehorse that cannot run. Not only every philosopher but also every scientist is in his debt. The productive and practical sciences, in contrast, address our daily needs as human beings, and have to do with things that can and do change. In fact they are worse, since they have chosen the life they lead in a way that a knife or an acorn or a horse cannot. But war is not itself an end or a good thing; war is for the sake of peace, and the inability of the Spartans to live virtuously in times of peace has led to their downfall. And as a result, neither group seeks equality but instead each tries to dominate the other, believing that it is the only way to avoid being dominated in turn. Finally, there are a number of controversies related to the text of thePolitics in particular. Though Plato was the first to elaborate a Socratic philosophy of politics, his student Aristotle was the first to articulate a practically-oriented political science, meant to be of use to legislators, statesmen, and citizens. In this case, however, the husband does not alternate rule with the wife but instead always rules. Many democracies offer pay for serving in the assembly or on juries so that the poor will be able to attend. - Definition & Philosophy, Aristotle Lesson for Kids: Biography & Facts, Aristotle's Moral Philosophy Paper Topics, August Vollmer: Biography & Contributions, Prima Facie Obligation Example: Obeying the Law, Inevitable Discovery: Rule, Doctrine & Exception, How to Press Charges: Definition & Statute of Limitations, Administration of Justice: Definition & Overview, Subpoena Duces Tecum: Definition & Example, Complainant: Meaning, Definition & Criminology, Courts of General Jurisdiction: Definition & Trial Process, Working Scholars Bringing Tuition-Free College to the Community. Whether this makes Aristotles position on slavery more acceptable or less so is left to the reader to decide. For, as we assert, nature does nothing in vain, and man alone among the animals has speech. Aristotle believes that we ought to be more concerned with other matters; moneymaking is beneath the attention of the virtuous man. (In this Aristotle is in agreement with the common opinion of Athenian aristocrats). However, the main topics and problems of Aristotles work will be included. Aristotles life was primarily that of a scholar. Valuable secondary sources are Eric Voegelin, Order and History, Plato and Aristotle, Vol. He will do this again on a more theoretical level in Books IV-VI. We must figure out how to live together for ourselves through the use of reason and speech, discovering justice and creating laws that make it possible for human community to survive and for the individuals in it to live virtuous lives. He compares the individuals relationship with the city to the relationship of a part of the body to the whole body. Scholars make use of this system for all of Aristotles works except the Constitution of Athens (which was not rediscovered until after 1831) and fragmentary works in order to be able to refer to the same point in Aristotles work regardless of which edition, translation, or language they happen to be working with. Aristotle later ranks them in order of goodness, with monarchy the best, aristocracy the next best, then polity, democracy, oligarchy, and tyranny (1289a38). In saying this, Aristotle was undermining the legitimacy of the two most significant sources of slaves. This part of the discussion we will pass over. This belief means that women are denied access to certain areas of life (such as politics). Updated and revised version of a classic translation from 1925. Not many books can stay useful for eighty years. The three genuine forms of government include monarchy, aristocracy, and polity. In other words, they engage in conflict with the other citizens because of their desire for an unequal share of honor, which leads them to treat the many with condescension and arrogance. These people, of course, were all men. According to Aristotle, state was developed from the family to satisfy the needs and desires of the people. Aristotle turns to this question in Chapter 2. The man who loves himself, Aristotle says, loves that in him which is most noble, good. Political authority determines the bounds, if not the conclusions, of all scientific inquiry. Today we tend to think of living well as living a life of comfort, family satisfaction, and professional success, surrounded by nice things. This is a recipe for instability, conflict, and ultimately civil war, rather than a lasting regime. copyright 2003-2022 Study.com. Baron de Montesquieu Beliefs & Biography | Who was Montesquieu? But Aristotle believes that you would also, as part of your description, have to say that it is made to cut things. Like his teachers, Aristotle did much to promote philosophy as an ally to the city and a guide for political action, and thereby not only encouraged toleration of philosophy but established it as a crucial basis of authority throughout the Western world. Both groups are partially correct, but neither is entirely correct, And it is for this reason that, when either [group] does not share in the regime on the basis of the conception it happens to have, they engage in factional conflict which can lead to civil war (1301a37). And, even today, we speak of human nature or of natures course, and we mean something that is structured, settled, and independent of the will of man. We will not examine them closely, but it is worth observing that Aristotle regards campaigning for office as a potentially dangerous source of conflict. Nevertheless, the ideas of other thinkers can assist us in our search for knowledge. Virtuous citizens are prepared to live together under common laws and contribute to their community. The state is no less natural than the family; this is proved by the fact that human beings have the power of speech, the purpose of which is to set forth the expedient and inexpedient, and therefore likewise the just and the unjust. The foundation of the state was the greatest of benefactions, because only within a state can human beings fulfill their potential. And Aristotle would say that unless you included thattelos in your description, you wouldnt really have described or understood the knife. The translation is that of Martin Ostwald; see the bibliography for full information. He and his students documented the constitutions of 158 statesone of which, The Constitution of Athens, has survived on papyrus. Aristotle also includes here the clam that the citizens making up the elite engage in conflict because of inequality of honors (1266b38). Again he takes up the question of what the city actually is, but here his method is to understand the parts that make up the city: the citizens. A just city encourages its citizens to realize their full rational potential. Cities are preserved not by complete unity and similarity but by reciprocal equality, and this principle is especially important in cities where persons are free and equal. In such cities all cannot rule at the same time, but each rules for a year or according to some other arrangement or period of time. The other pair, however, is that of the naturally ruling and ruled, on account of preservation (1252a30). For Aristotle, remember, politics is about developing the virtue of the citizens and making it possible for them to live a life of virtue. However, Aristotle also includes a discussion of the animating principle of democracy, which is freedom: It is customarily said that only in this sort of regime do [men] share in freedom, for, so it is asserted, every democracy aims at this (1317a40). The cause of this state is that they are serious about living, but not about living well; and since that desire of theirs is without limit, they also desire what is productive of unlimited things (1257b38). The community brings about virtue through education and through laws which prescribe certain actions and prohibit others. Learning the subjects that fall under the heading of productive knowledge, such as how to make shoes, would be degrading to the citizen. Hence, the question was who could participate and who could not. Political science studies the tasks of the politician or statesman (politikos), in much the way that medical science concerns the work of the physician (see Politics IV. He said that friendship (philia) seems to hold together the polls, because statesmen are naturally more concerned about philia than they are about justice.10 Hence to promote concord (homonoia) concerning the most important things is the statesmans chief goal. Where is the connection? Statesmen must have some insight into this relationship if they are to be successful in encouraging concord. Because nature (physis) for the Greek philosophers from Thales to Aristotle was theophanous, Aristotle used it in this context to evoke an experience of the relationship, the consubstantiality of law, justice, order, and community with the divine. Wordpoliteia, which is, he treats state as a moral, political being greatest of benefactions, because stimulates. 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